Urosalpinx cinerea - Atlantic oyster drill
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Urosalpinx cinerea (Say, 1822)
not yet reported (Watchlist)
NW Atlantic
Aquaculture - importing live animals
The original range of the American oyster drill is the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to southeastern Florida [2,3].
First observation in Belgium
The American oyster drill has not yet been observed in Belgium.
Distribution in Belgium
The American oyster drill has not yet been observed in Belgium.
Distribution in neighbouring countries
In the United Kingdom, the American oyster drill was first observed in 1928 (in Essex), though it was initially misidentified. The species was confirmed the following year [4,5]. It is highly likely that the species had been present in British oyster beds for several years before it was officially recorded [6].
In 2007, several specimens of the American oyster drill were found in the Eastern Scheldt, near the low water line at Gorishoek [7]. It is possible that this predatory snail was present earlier but was not correctly identified until then [2,7]. To date, its presence in the Netherlands seems to be limited to the area around Gorishoek (Eastern Scheldt) [8].
Between 2011 and 2022, the species was observed multiple times along the French Atlantic coast, including the Bay of Biscay (Arcachon Bay, Île d'Oléron), as well as in Normandy and the Strait of Calais [9].
Both primary and secondary introductions of the American oyster drill are associated with the importation of oysters for shellfish cultivation [2,7].
The American oyster drill prefers muddy substrates in estuaries, which partly explains its presence in the Eastern Scheldt (the Netherlands) [6]. Additionally, shellfish farming occurs in the same region, providing a reliable food source [2].
The American oyster drill tolerates temperatures ranging from -1 to 30°C [10,11], but the temperature range suitable for reproduction is narrower, between 15 to 30°C [12,13]. Similarly, the species can tolerate salinities from 12 to 37 psu depending on the region [14], but a minimum salinity of 20 psu is required for reproduction [15]. It is found in intertidal and subtidal waters, down to depths of 40 meters [16].
The species does not have a free-swimming larval stage, making secondary dispersal via natural sea currents unlikely [2]. In the Eastern Scheldt, for example, significant material transport between plots can facilitate the spread of the snails [17]. In the regions where it occurs, oyster drill populations were historically reduced due to the use of tributyltin (TBT) antifouling paint in shipping. Following the ban on this toxic substance, populations appeared to recover [2,7].
The biological success of the species is partly attributed to its tolerance of temperature and salinity variations and its ability to prey on multiple species. Prey preferences can vary by study area and primarily include mussels, oysters, and barnacles [7,10], but may also encompass gastropods or bryozoans [10,18]. Additionally, research indicates clear seasonal feeding patterns, with food intake increasing significantly at warmer water temperatures. Seasonal or long-term changes in seawater temperature due to climate change could thus have a substantial impact on the predator-prey relationship between the American oyster drill and its prey [19].
The American oyster drill is a well-known pest in the commercial oyster industry. In the United States and the United Kingdom, oyster mortality rates have been reported between 33% and 70% [2], with an average of 60% [20-23]. Wild shellfish populations can also be impacted [24]. Efforts to control established populations have proven unsuccessful [2]. Oyster farmers attempt to manage the spread of the American oyster drill by manually removing adult individuals and egg capsules or by using special dredges with fine mesh sizes. However, even local eradication is challenging, leading some oyster beds to be abandoned entirely [2,6]. Furthermore, this oyster drill often thrives in its new habitat due to the absence of specialised predators and parasites [7].
The effectiveness of chemical control methods has been studied in the past [25,26], but these methods have been largely ineffective, as they either kill the oysters – who exhibit similar resistance to chemical treatments as the oyster drills – or result in significant environmental costs [25,27,28]. Banning the introduction of shellfish from areas where the oyster drill is present is likely the best way to prevent the introduction of this species [11], as treating transported shellfish proves ineffective [28]. Freshwater rinsing has been insufficient for eliminating adult specimens due to their tolerance to salinity variations and the protection provided by their hard shells and opercula against unfavorable conditions [28,29]. For instance, immersing the species in freshwater for 24 hours has no effect on its survival. One study shows that 100% mortality of oyster drills at a constant salinity of 8 psu was only achieved after 20 days, whereas at 10 psu, only 40% mortality was observed after 40 days [29,30].
Practical management measures are implemented, such as switching to adjusted cultivation methods to prevent predation. For example, the 'off-bottom' method involves growing young oysters in suspended baskets or bags away from the seabed, but this approach involves substantial costs [27] due to the need for proactive control measures against fouling in some areas. If this is not done, fouling organisms can deplete the nutrients from the water that oysters need [31]. When opting for labor-intensive manual control of the oyster drill population, removing the oyster drill eggs is preferred, as it is more effective than removing adult individuals [32], although local eradication remains difficult [2,6].
Research shows that oysters in areas affected by oyster drill predation develop defensive mechanisms, such as reducing shell size and producing thicker and harder shells. This slows down the predation process [33].
The American oyster drill has an average shell height of about 25 mm, with larger individuals reaching up to 35 mm [34]. Locally, environmental conditions can lead to even larger specimens, up to an exceptional 60 mm. Females are generally larger than males [6]. The shell features 5 to 6 whorls with 9 to 12 axial ribs [34].
The American oyster drill possesses chemoreceptive mechanisms that detect effluents (waste products) from potential prey [18,35]. It primarily feeds on bivalve flesh by boring a hole in the shell using its radula. After creating the hole, the drill injects a substance into the shell that relaxes the adductor muscle of the prey, allowing the flesh to be consumed. The boring process can take between 1 and 14 days, depending on the size of the oyster, with an average of one prey item consumed per snail per week [2,36]. However, by targeting smaller oysters [19], a single oyster drill can consume up to 200 oysters per year [14].
Reproduction occurs in the spring and summer when water temperatures rise. After fertilisation, the female deposits 20 to 40 translucent capsules, each containing 5 to 12 eggs, onto a suitable substrate [27]. After about 6 to 8 weeks, well-developed but very small juveniles emerge from the eggs and feed on various bivalve species and sometimes on bryozoans. This varied diet helps reduce intraspecific competition for food [10]. Sexual maturity is reached after 1 to 2 years, and individuals can live up to 8 years [20,27,37].
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